Objective Testing in the Outdoors

Having worked with a variety of groups and individuals from an eclectic mix of backgrounds and lifestyles over the course of my placement, it became apparent that both adventure and outdoor education programs can be a real boost to self-esteem. Especially for those who have not previously excelled, with many individuals discovering for the first time that they can succeed, a discovery that has a direct effect on their subsequent engagement and motivation (Williams 2001). Through my own personal experience I do not believe in that the growths and changes shown in many participants undertaking such activities can be measured or recorded in an entirely accurate manner. It is my belief that interaction between client and facilitator over the course of the program can provide more insight into development of that individual a view shared by Farrrager, Harrman, Bullard (1993) who found adventure experiences are rich in assessment, with certain features of these experiences providing assessment information difficult to obtain or represent accurately.

Having viewed some of the various instrumentation used for analysing personal and group changes in the outdoors such as the Schwarzer & Jerusalem (1993) self efficacy scale and  (ROPELOC) Review of Personal Effectiveness with Locus of Control (Richards, Ellis, Neill, 2002). It is evident that they can be applied as a general measure but are insensitive to change and unable to target specific behavioural changes of which in my personal experience of which I believe is a crucial factor in order to determine the effectiveness of an outdoor program.  

Niell (2002) sates that a key aim of any outdoor experimental program is to facilitate individual’s personal development in many life skills, with specific aims. Yet if the instrumentation used is unable to detect specific behavioural changes then it hedges the question as to how important the inclusion of such a process would be in that of the outdoors.    

Experiential and outdoor education practitioners have been making official claims that challenging outdoor expeditions are beneficial for participant’s personal development (Neill, 2002). This is a statement that I endorse, having being fortunate enough to find my self in an instructional role within the outdoors I was able to observe first hand and also assist in the process of improving individuals self esteem over the course of their adventure challenge programs. I was able to assess and conclude using group observations debriefing and reflecting periods both in a group and individual setting to ascertain if the program implanted had made any changes in the clients self esteem, without the need for instrumentation used for analysing personal and group changes in the outdoors.

Figure 1.A Kura Kaupapa Māori school group from the Northland area watching the suset on Pinacle Ridge MT. Ruapehu prior to climbing into our snow caves 

In conclusion I find my views representing that of McDonalds (1997), with the basis that the accurate way of establishing and assessing the benefits of outdoor education can be directly derived through the communication between facilitator and clients with acute observations during the course of the program.  

References

Randall Williams. (2011). The Benefits of Outdoor Adventure.Available: http://comment.rsablogs.org.uk/2011/02/14/benefits-outdoor-adventure/. Last accessed 7th May 2013.

Farrrager. B, Harrman. S, Bullard. M (1993) Therapeutic Applications of Adventure in a therapeutic wilderness setting. Boulder CO. Association for the Experimental Education  

Neill, J. T., Marsh, H. W., & Richards, G. E. (in preparation). The Life Effectiveness

Questionnaire: Development and psychometrics.  Sydney: University of Western

Sydney.

Schwarzer, R. (1993). Measurement of perceived self-efficacy. Psychometric scales for cross-cultural research. Berlin, Germany: Freie Universität Berlin.

Theories and Concepts- Physical Self Concept in Adventure

Self-esteem can be described as the value a person makes on their own personal judgement of their own personal worthiness (Oslen, 2008). The key aspect of self-esteem steams from the basis that it concerns people as individuals and our own personal sense of value and the development of this stems from the experiences in persons life both positive and negative (Oslen, 2008).

From my own personal experience with running programs with an eclectic cliental I endorse the concept of various outdoor adventurous experiences contributing to a change in esteem both positive and negative, a view supported Stiehl and Parker (2007) enhanced self concept is commonly attributed to adventure education.

More recent studies of self-concept however have shown that self-esteem is placed at the top of a hierarchical model with global physical self-concept in the middle and more specific physical self-concepts at the base (Marsch, 1985).  O’Connell found an increase in physical self-concept resulting from such adventure course as that of outward bound. From my own experience I have found this was very relevant with regards to adventures activities as physical self-concept is directly related to how an individual views himself or herself concerning their own physicality (Fox and Corbin, 1989).  Due to the nature of adventures activities the potential for clients to assess and views themselves in such specific areas as strength, endurance and competence and make judgments about their own ability is a more often occurrence. 

Figure 1.  Marsh et al (1994)- Hierarchical model displaying the relationship among self-esteem, global physical self-concept and specific components directly relating to self-concept 

In a study by Swalm (2010) on students views on physical self-concept in adventure education showed various implications within adventures activities that affected both students physical self-concept and self esteem, such an example was a student who expressed that being overweight while performing climbing tasks made it difficult to succeed and lead to embarrassment in front of their peers.

Such experience can detrimentally affect an individual and even put them off participating in such adventurous activities, as the potential for embarrassment that is highlighted by that student regarding their physical appearance supports another key feature of the Marsh et al. (1994) model; of which shows that even in the medium of adventure input from significant others such as friends, family and classmates contributes to ones physical self-concept.

Figure 2. Another successful adventure challenge program completed with a Turangua school group in NZ with possible gain in self esteem within both staff and students?   

In conclusion there is evidence to show that adventure as a medium can both influence physical self concept and self esteem both negatively and positively, in my own opinion and experience it is the role of the facilitator to judge and create a setting where the outcomes are that of positive experiences by pitching activities at an achievable level.            

References 

Olsen, J.M., Breckler, S.J., &Wiggins, E.C. (2008). Social Psychology Alive(1st ed.) Canada:Nelson.

Stiehl, J., & Parker, M. (2007). Individual outcomes of participating in adventure. In D. Prouty, J. Panicucci, & R. Collinson (Eds.), Adventure education: Theory and applications (pp. 63–76). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

Marsh, H.W., & Shavelson, R. (1985). Self-concept: Its multifaceted, hierarchical structure. Educational Psychologist, 20(3), 107–123.

Fox, K.R., & Corbin, C.B. (1989). The Physical Self-Perception Profile: Development and preliminary evaluation. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 11, 408–430.

O’Connell, T. S. (2001). Self-concept: A study of outdoor adventure education with ado- lescents. Dissertations Abstracts International, 62 

Experimental Education

Experiential learning is being able to derive a meaning from a direct experience or the process whereby knowledge is created through the transformation of experience. Knowledge results from the combination of grasping and transforming experience (Kolb 1984).

Experiential learning is the learning process that an individual undertakes and is regularly linked to the concept of experimental education, however they have key differences. Experimental learning specifies that of the individuals learning where as experiential education as an entity is more interpreted as an evolvement of education.  And in this respect is more linked with such concepts as the relationship between teacher and student, while encapsulating the larger issues such as educational structure and objectives (Itin, 1999).       

Figure 1.  Davis (1993) The Diamond Model of the Philosophy of Experiential Education

A more extensive model of the definition of experiential learning, in this redefined model the experimental learning process is clearly visible for that of both student and teacher. The teacher and student share a similar experience in terms of the teaching experience, the process is defined by the student or teacher based upon his or her own personal reflection.  

This model was most applicable to my own view of experiential education as it does not dictate or reflect that of a specific strategy but allows for a variety of approaches that can be used within this model.

Of my own personal experience I found that experiential learning took place in various activities of which were not outside clients comfort zones and to which my they could participate at their own level.  Of what I observed much of it took place in games or activities focused on team cohesion and working together. As the goal was often to complete a set task with very little input or advice in how to do so from instructors creating a base for the learning to take place; as experiential learning requires self initiative an intention to learn and an active phase of learning (Moon, 2004).  Upon completion of these group tasks whether negative or positive I as a facilitator was then able to guide individuals through some of the deeper aims involved in the activity. This process of learning allowed them to potentially result in changes of judgment, feelings or skills for themselves as an individual (Chickering, 1997). And Such learning is not just confined to that of the outdoors with a rise in experiential learning seen in that of higher academic learning in such areas as finance and business programs; (Clark and White, 2010) state that a quality university education program requires that of an experimental learning aspect.                

      

Figure 2. A School group form the Turangua area of the north island NZ using trial and error (experimental learning) in an attempt to cross the swamp   

The philosophy and ideals of experimental education allow both outdoor instructors and teachers of varying levels to be able to link different meaningful strategies. By being able to approach educational processes from an experimental sense allow the activities to become more linked and essentially produce a deeper understanding for both student and client.

Association for the Experiential Education (AEE) (1994) AEE definition of experiential education. Boulder, CO; Assosication for Experiential Eductaion

Chickering, A (1977). Experience and Learning. New York: Change Magazine Press. pp. 63.

Clark, J., & White, G. (2010). "Experiential Learning: A Definitive Edge In The Job Market". American Journal Of Business Education, 3(2), 115-118.

Itin, C. M. (1999). Reasserting the Philosophy of Experiential Education as a Vehicle for Change in the 21st Century. The Journal of Experiential Education 22(2), 91-98.  

Kolb, D. A. (1984). Experiential learning: Experience as the source of learning and development. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall.

Moon, J. (2004). A Handbook of Reflective and Experiential Learning:Theory and Practice. London: Routledge Falmer. pp. 126.

Personal Philosophy

Having worked with children and adults of various ages and backgrounds in many different settings such as that of outdoor centres and schools, both abroad and in the UK has given me first hand experience of facilitation and allowed me to create my personal philosophy on the use of soft skills.

Based on my own personal experiences and from what I have witnessed first hand in the sector I believe that using adventure as a medium can promote and foster personal growth and development. This however I believe to be small part of the puzzle, and that by merely taking part in adventurous activities and reflecting upon them does not instantly change a persons entire outlook on life due to a successful week long program at a outdoor centre.

My own personal experience has shown me that it is the instructor that denotes as just to how applicable the use of soft skills are with their own specific group of individuals. And that all individuals have the ability to push themselves and make gains in their own personal growth prior to participating in a course at a adventure centre. The adventures activities are merely used and facilitated by the instructor’s to elicit these responses and build upon what is already present within that individual, and it is the instructor’s use and personal leadership styles and experiences that cement this process.  Hopkins (1982) found that the “positive effect of the adventure experience on the growth of self-concept” could be negated by the influence of a “competitive, confrontational and unsympathetic” instructor.

Hopkins finding were reflected in that of an outdoor centre in which I worked where a large element of the client base was that of Polynesian schools who were predominately from farming or lower social backgrounds. Used to working with their families from an early age in various forms of labour many of these groups required a very specific type of facilitation. However instructors not recognising this found these groups challenging difficult and in some cases were unable to facilitate activities let alone being able to tie in a particular life lesson that would improve them as individuals for the day’s events.

Figure 1.A Kura Kaupapa Māori school group from the Northland area of the north Island in NZ taking on the high ropes course very successfully    

However despite these observations I also became aware that despite not understanding why they had participated in the activities or what it had been in aid of many of these students still showed a significant rise in confidence or their own personal self-esteem. Fox (1998) ‘Self-esteem is generally viewed as a global and relatively stable evaluative construct reflecting the degree to which an individual feels positive about him or herself.’

Barrett and Greenaway (1995) used the ‘dynamic adventure environment’ model to illustrate what it is that they think enhancing self-esteem is. They argue that the combination of physical exercise, fear and the support of both the group and instructor, all act upon increasing self-esteem as they adapt to the unaccustomed, dynamic adventure environment.  This model supports my observations of how many of the groups coming through despite having very little soft skill application from their instructors during the week still achieved many of its desired outcomes such as an increase in self-esteem.

Figure 2. Barrett and Greenway (1995) Dynamic Adventure Environment model,  with input factors in order of importance based on my own personal experience    

So while I don’t fully endorse the belief that a week long program at a adventure centre can improve upon a person’s personal growth and development I do consider it to be a valuable learning experience and potentially the gains can be great, but expecting a child to do a week long program and be a changed person from there on out is quite an optimistic ideal .  

Barret, J., Greenaway, R. (1995) Why adventure? The role and value of outdoor adventure in young people’s personal and social development. Coventry: Foundation for Outdoor Adventure. 

Fox, K.R. (1998) Advances in the measurement of the physical self. In:Advances in Sport and Exercise Psychology Measurement, (edited by J. Duda .), pp.295-310. Morgantown, WV: Fitness Information Technology.

Turesky, E, & Gallagher, D 2011, 'Know thyself: Coaching for leadership using Kolb's Experiential Learning Theory',Coaching Psychologist, 7, 1, pp. 5-14,

Bandura, A. (1982). Self-efficacy: towards a unifying theory of behavioural change. Psychological Review, 84(2), 

191–215.